The golden visa landscape has contracted sharply since 2022. Spain closed its programme in 2025. Portugal removed the residential property route in 2023. Ireland and the United Kingdom terminated their programmes. Greece restructured zone-based investment thresholds. What remains is a smaller, more differentiated set of active golden visa programmes. The differences are no longer just investment thresholds. Processing speed, residency type, citizenship pathways, family inclusion rules and programme stability now vary materially between jurisdictions.
This guide functions as a comparative framework across active golden visa programmes, not as a country directory. Summaries below are intentionally concise; dedicated pages for each programme cover full qualification mechanics and application workflows. For the strategic question of structuring residency and citizenship as instruments of residency vs citizenship investment, see the full residency versus citizenship guide.
The table below compares active golden visa programmes across the primary investor decision variables. All figures are current as of 2025; dedicated programme pages carry full qualification mechanics and up-to-date fee schedules.
| Programme | Type | Min. Investment | Citizenship | Processing | Stay Req. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UAE | LTR — 10yr renewable | AED 2M (~€500k) | No pathway | ~1 month | None |
| Greece | Permanent Residency | €250k–€800k | 7 years | ~6 months | None |
| Portugal | Temp. Residency | €250k–€500k | 5 years | ~24 months | 7 days/yr |
| Malta | Permanent Residency | €300k–€375k + contrib. | No direct path | ~9 months | None |
| Hungary | Temp. Residency — 10yr | €250k (fund) | No direct path | ~2 months | None |
| Latvia | Temp. Residency | ~€100k | Standard naturalisation | ~3 months | None |
| Turkey | Citizenship — direct | $400k property | Immediate | ~3 months | None |
| Caribbean (St Kitts, Grenada, Antigua) | Citizenship — direct | $235k–$250k donation | Immediate | 3–4 months | None |
What a Golden Visa Grants — and What It Does Not
Residency Type — The Critical Distinction
The term golden visa covers four distinct legal categories. Long-Term Residency (LTR) — such as the UAE Golden Visa — is a renewable fixed-term permit, typically 10 years, which continues as long as the qualifying investment remains in place. Permanent Residency (PR) grants an indefinite right of residence without a fixed renewal clock; Greece and Malta’s MPRP both issue PR directly on approval. Temporary Residency (TR) is a renewable fixed-term permit requiring active management through renewal cycles — Portugal’s ARI and Hungary’s GIP fall into this category. Citizenship (CIT) programmes, found in the Caribbean and Turkey, deliver a full second passport without any prior residency period. PR provides the most stable legal status without the commitment of full citizenship; TR requires active renewal management; LTR sits between the two; CIT programmes skip the residency period entirely.
The Tax Residency Misconception
Legal residency and tax residency are separate legal statuses governed by different frameworks. Holding a golden visa does not automatically establish tax residency in the programme country. Tax residency is determined by national tax law — typically through physical day-count thresholds, the location of an investor’s centre of vital interests, or both. An investor holding a UAE long-term residency permit without physically spending the required days in the UAE is not a UAE tax resident and cannot obtain a UAE tax residency certificate. Investors whose objective is establishing a new tax domicile must model the two requirements together from the outset — they are co-ordinated objectives, not sequential ones.
Programme Directory — Active Programmes
UAE — Long-Term Residency
The UAE Golden Visa is a long-term residency permit, renewable every 10 years. The property route qualifies at AED 2 million registered freehold with DLD. There is no annual stay requirement and no citizenship route. Applications typically complete within approximately one month. Family sponsorship covers a spouse, children and parents. For full qualification details and the two-year investor visa tier, see the Dubai Golden Visa and the UAE Golden Visa.
Greece — Permanent Residency
Greece grants permanent residency from day one — not a pathway to PR through renewals. The threshold is tiered by zone: €250,000 for commercial and heritage restoration in low-density areas; €400,000 for standard residential zones; €800,000 for Athens, Thessaloniki, Mykonos, Santorini and other designated high-demand municipalities. Government fees are approximately €60,000. Approval typically takes around 6 months. There is no minimum annual stay requirement. The citizenship route opens at 7 years of legal residency with 183 days per year of physical presence. Greece is currently the most direct property route to immediate permanent residency within the EU — combining freehold property qualification with PR status granted on approval.
Portugal — Fund Route Only
Portugal’s ARI programme closed its residential property route in October 2023. Active qualifying options are a CMVM-regulated investment fund at €500,000 and an arts or cultural support donation at €250,000. The programme grants temporary residency on a two-year renewal cycle. Portugal reaches citizenship eligibility after 5 years — requiring just 7 days per year on the ground — making it one of the more accessible EU passport routes despite the 24-month application wait. Government fees are approximately €60,000.
Malta — Permanent Residence Programme
Malta’s MPRP requires all three components simultaneously: a government contribution (€98,000 purchasing or €68,000 renting), a qualifying property, and a €2,000 philanthropic donation. The contribution and donation are non-recoverable costs. The programme grants permanent residency immediately on approval. Malta offers the broadest family inclusion of any active programme — grandparents, dependent adult children and same-sex partners are all eligible. Approval takes approximately 9 months. Malta is an EU and Schengen member; the MPRP grants freedom of movement but does not include a direct citizenship conversion route.
Hungary and Latvia — Lower Thresholds, No Citizenship Route
Hungary’s Guest Investor Programme was relaunched in 2024 and offers a 10-year renewable temporary residency permit for a €250,000 investment in an HFSA-regulated real estate investment fund. Approvals complete in approximately 2 months. Government fees are approximately €27,000. Citizenship conversion is not available through this programme. Latvia offers EU residency at approximately €100,000 through qualifying real estate or share capital investment — one of the lowest entry points of any active EU programme. Processing is approximately 3 months; government fees approximately €40,000. Neither programme provides a direct citizenship conversion route; investors would need to pursue standard naturalisation separately.
The following two programmes deliver citizenship directly rather than a residency permit. They are included here for comparative context alongside residency-based programmes, as investors frequently evaluate them as alternatives within the same planning exercise.
Caribbean — Citizenship by Investment
The Caribbean CBI programmes — St Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica — deliver full citizenship and a second passport without any prior residency period. Donation routes start at $235,000–$250,000; real estate options are available at higher thresholds. Approvals run 3–4 months. St Kitts and Grenada hold the most widely accepted Caribbean passports, with strong visa-free access counts among second-passport options, though materially below EU programme citizenships. The primary trade-off is the absence of EU freedom of movement or Schengen access. Grenada’s E-2 treaty with the United States is a meaningful additional benefit for investors with US market interests.
Turkey — Citizenship by Investment
Turkey’s CBI programme requires a qualifying real estate purchase of $400,000 with a 3-year holding period. Approval takes approximately 3 months and delivers full citizenship. The Turkish passport provides access to approximately 110–125 countries depending on the index and weighting methodology consulted — materially below EU programme citizenships. The programme is administratively straightforward and represents the only option in this guide combining direct property ownership with immediate citizenship, without a prior residency period.
Investment Routes — Property, Funds and Donations
Programme investment routes have diverged considerably as some countries have removed property options under domestic housing market pressure. The qualifying investment type affects both the investor’s asset exposure and the programme’s long-term political durability.
| Programme | Direct Property | Regulated Fund | Donation / Contribution | Business |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UAE | ✓ AED 2M freehold | — | — | ✓ company ownership route |
| Greece | ✓ €250k–€800k by zone | — | — | — |
| Portugal | ✗ closed Oct 2023 | ✓ €500k CMVM fund | ✓ €250k arts/culture | ✓ job creation |
| Malta | ✓ €300k–€375k (required) | — | ✓ €98k–€68k contribution + €2k (required) | — |
| Hungary | — | ✓ €250k HFSA fund | — | — |
| Latvia | ✓ ~€100k | ✓ | — | ✓ |
| Turkey | ✓ $400k property | — | — | — |
| Caribbean | — | — | ✓ $235k–$250k government fund | ✓ |
Where Direct Property Still Qualifies
Greece, UAE, Malta (as part of a composite structure), Turkey and Latvia all retain direct real estate as a qualifying investment. Portugal’s residential property route was closed in October 2023 following EU political scrutiny and domestic housing pressure. The pattern across programme closures and route removals since 2022 is consistent: property routes in high-demand urban markets carry materially higher political exposure than fund or donation routes. For investors weighing asset classes, this risk differential should be factored into programme selection alongside the headline investment threshold. For full qualification criteria on the UAE property route, see the UAE residency by property investment.
Fund, Donation and Business Routes
Portugal’s remaining fund route at €500,000 into a CMVM-regulated fund is currently its most accessible option, with a €250,000 arts and culture donation as the lower-cost alternative. Hungary’s HFSA-regulated real estate fund at €250,000 is the programme’s only qualifying route. Caribbean programmes operate on government fund donation structures. Malta’s programme is not a pure donation route — it requires all three components (government contribution, qualifying property, and philanthropic donation) simultaneously. For investors whose capital would otherwise be deployed in liquid assets, fund routes represent a meaningful departure from asset retention; the recoverable component of each programme’s investment structure should be modelled carefully. See the dedicated guide on golden visa property investment.
Stay Requirements and Citizenship Timelines
| Programme | Min. Stay to Maintain Residency | Citizenship Timeline | Physical Presence for Citizenship |
|---|---|---|---|
| UAE | None | No pathway | — |
| Greece | None | 7 years | 183 days/year |
| Portugal | 7 days/year | 5 years | 7 days/year |
| Malta MPRP | None | No direct pathway | — |
| Hungary | None | No direct pathway | — |
| Latvia | None | Standard naturalisation only | — |
| Turkey | None | Immediate on approval | — |
| Caribbean | None | Immediate on approval | — |
Programmes With No Physical Presence Requirement
The majority of active golden visa programmes impose no annual day-count to maintain residency status. Portugal is the sole exception at 7 days per year — a low threshold by any practical measure, but one that requires deliberate scheduling. The more operationally significant constraints sit in the citizenship column, not the residency maintenance column. Greece’s 183-days-per-year requirement for citizenship is the most demanding of any programme with a citizenship route in this guide, and should be modelled against an investor’s actual travel and business calendar before selecting Greece on a citizenship objective.
Citizenship Timeline Comparison
Caribbean and Turkey programmes deliver citizenship directly on approval — no prior residency period, no timeline beyond the application itself. Portugal reaches citizenship eligibility after 5 years, with 7 days per year on the ground. Greece requires 7 years with 183 days annually — considerably more demanding in terms of physical commitment. Malta’s MPRP does not include a direct citizenship conversion option — Malta’s CBI is a separate, higher-cost structure. Hungary and Latvia similarly offer no direct citizenship route through their investment programmes.
Passport Mobility — What Residency Actually Grants
Residency status does not grant the destination country’s passport. Investors comparing programmes on passport mobility should model the complete sequence: acquisition of residency, completion of the required residency period, satisfaction of naturalisation conditions, and then citizenship. Citizenship through a European programme — Greece, Portugal or Malta — delivers access to all 27 EU member states and Schengen free movement; passports from these countries rank among the strongest globally across major indices, though specific rankings vary by methodology and update cycle. The UAE passport is available to UAE nationals and carries strong access credentials — but residency status alone does not confer it. For investors whose objective is EU freedom of movement, the correct planning horizon is Portugal or Greece citizenship — not residency alone. For immediate international mobility, Caribbean CBI programmes deliver a functional second passport in 3–4 months at a lower capital commitment, without EU access.
Family Inclusion — Dependent Coverage Compared
| Programme | Spouse | Children | Adult Children | Parents | Grandparents | Same-Sex Partner |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UAE | ✓ | To 24 (male) | ✗ over 24 | ✓ | ✗ | ✗ |
| Greece | ✓ | To 21 | ✗ | ✓ incl. parents-in-law | ✗ | ✗ |
| Portugal | ✓ | To 18 / student ext. | Limited | ✓ incl. parents-in-law | ✗ | ✓ |
| Malta | ✓ | No upper limit (dependent) | ✓ dependent | ✓ | ✓ incl. grandparents-in-law | ✓ |
| Hungary | ✓ | To 18 | ✗ | ✓ dependent | ✗ | ✗ |
| Caribbean | ✓ | To 25–30 (varies) | Some programmes | 55+ (varies) | ✗ | Varies by country |
Multi-Generational and Same-Sex Partner Eligibility
Malta’s MPRP is the only programme reviewed here that extends eligibility to grandparents and grandparents-in-law alongside the main applicant’s immediate family — meaning four generations can be included within a single application. This is a genuine planning advantage for HNW families with eldercare obligations or multi-generational wealth structures. Portugal and Malta are the two active programmes extending full family inclusion to same-sex married partners. For any investor whose family structure includes a same-sex partner, these two programmes are the only viable European options — a criterion that cost-only comparisons frequently omit.
Programme Stability and Risk
| Programme | Risk Level | Primary Risk Factor | Stability Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| UAE | Low | None identified | LTR structure is administratively stable; no domestic housing pressure |
| Greece | Medium-Low | EU regulatory scrutiny | Legislatively grounded; broad cross-party support; property route intact |
| Portugal | Medium | EU scrutiny; past route attrition | Property route removed 2023; fund route more durable politically |
| Malta MPRP | Medium | EU Commission review of RBI structures | MPRP distinct from Malta’s CBI; ongoing but not acute EU scrutiny |
| Hungary | Medium-High | Programme history; political uncertainty | Previously suspended; relaunched 2024; no citizenship route adds some durability |
| Caribbean | Low–Medium | Varies by country | St Kitts and Grenada are the most established; Vanuatu removed 2022 |
| Turkey | Medium | Currency exposure; political context | Programme structure stable but investor purchasing power affected by lira movements |
Programmes That Have Closed or Restricted Since 2022
Ireland closed its Immigrant Investor Programme in 2023. The United Kingdom terminated its Tier 1 Investor Visa in 2022. Spain closed its Golden Visa programme in 2025, citing housing affordability pressures concentrated in Barcelona and Madrid. Portugal removed its residential property route in 2023 under similar domestic housing pressure and following European Commission recommendations on RBI programme scrutiny. Cyprus had its citizenship programme suspended following a 2021 investigation. The pattern in closures is consistent: property-route programmes in high-cost urban markets are the most politically exposed. Programmes channelling investment through funds, donations or business structures have generally proved more durable.
Reading Political Risk Before Committing Capital
Stability indicators worth monitoring before a qualifying investment: the volume of active applications (high demand creates revenue dependency that deters closure); whether the investment route is through property (higher exposure) or funds and donations (lower); the EU regulatory environment, which has tightened scrutiny of RBI and CBI programmes since 2022; domestic housing market conditions in the programme country; and whether the programme has a legislative rather than regulatory basis — legislative programmes require parliamentary action to close, whereas regulatory structures can be amended by ministerial decision alone. Portugal’s fund route has a strong stability profile despite the property route closure; Greece’s programme is legislatively grounded with broad political support. Hungary’s relaunched programme carries elevated uncertainty given its history of suspension.
Choosing by Objective — Best For Each Investor Profile
Active golden visa programmes diverge significantly when evaluated against specific investor objectives rather than investment thresholds alone. The sections below identify the strongest option for each primary planning use case.
EU Citizenship Route
Portugal at €250,000 (arts/culture donation route) remains among the more accessible EU passport options for investors who can absorb a 24-month application wait — citizenship eligibility after 5 years with just 7 days per year on the ground. Greece at €250,000–€800,000 depending on property zone delivers faster approval (6 months), permanent residency from day one and a direct property asset — but the 7-year citizenship timeline and 183-days-per-year physical presence requirement are significant constraints for investors with dispersed travel patterns. Greece suits investors who want immediate permanent status and a property holding; Portugal suits those who want minimum disruption and can accept the application delay.
Fast Processing
UAE at approximately 1 month is the fastest programme in this guide. Hungary at 2 months is the fastest European option. Caribbean programmes complete in 3–4 months and deliver citizenship directly. Turkey takes approximately 3 months. European residency programmes — Greece (6 months), Malta (9 months) and Portugal (24 months) — are materially slower. For investors with time-sensitive planning objectives, the UAE, Caribbean and Hungary are the practical fast-track options.
No Stay Requirement
UAE, Greece, Malta, Hungary, Latvia, Turkey and all Caribbean programmes impose no annual day-count requirement to maintain residency or citizenship status. Portugal requires 7 days per year. For investors who cannot commit to regular travel patterns, the majority of active golden visa programmes accommodate zero-presence maintenance — the more meaningful constraint to model is the physical presence requirement for eventual citizenship, not residency maintenance itself.
Maximum Family Inclusion
Malta’s MPRP provides the broadest family coverage of any active programme: grandparents and grandparents-in-law, adult dependent children without a standard upper age limit, children with special needs at any age, and same-sex partners are all eligible. For multi-generational HNW families planning to sponsor parents, grandparents and adult children within a single application, Malta is the only active programme that accommodates all four generations. Portugal and Malta both extend inclusion to same-sex married partners — Greece, UAE and Hungary do not.
Low Capital Commitment
Latvia (~€100,000) and Caribbean donation routes ($235,000–$250,000) represent the lowest capital commitments in this guide. Portugal’s arts/culture donation at €250,000 is the lowest entry point for a programme with an EU citizenship route. Hungary at €250,000 is the lowest fund-route entry in Europe. The Latvia–Portugal–Hungary–Caribbean range covers the lower half of the investment spectrum while still spanning EU residency, Schengen access and direct citizenship options.
Property Asset Investment
Greece, UAE and Turkey are the active programmes offering direct freehold property qualification. Greece delivers permanent residency with a potential EU citizenship route; UAE delivers a long-term renewable permit with fast approvals and a mature property market; Turkey delivers immediate citizenship. For investors whose investment thesis combines real estate asset acquisition with a residency or citizenship objective, these three programmes represent the viable options following Portugal’s property route closure in 2023.
Decision Framework — Matching Programme to Objective
| Investor Objective | Best Programme | Entry Point | Key Trade-off |
|---|---|---|---|
| EU citizenship, minimum cost | Portugal — arts/culture donation route | €250,000 | 24-month application wait; no property asset |
| EU citizenship, fastest activation | Greece — standard zone property | €250,000–€400,000 | 7-year citizenship timeline; 183 days/yr presence required |
| Tax residency and wealth structuring | UAE | AED 2M (~€500k) | No citizenship route; requires physical presence for tax residency |
| Fast second passport | Caribbean — St Kitts or Grenada | $235,000–$250,000 donation | No EU access; lower passport rank than European citizenship |
| Maximum family inclusion | Malta MPRP | €300,000–€375,000 + contribution | Higher non-recoverable costs; no direct citizenship route |
| EU access, lower capital | Latvia (~€100k) or Hungary (€250k) | €100,000–€250,000 | No direct citizenship route; TR not PR |
| Direct property + immediate citizenship | Turkey | $400,000 property | Lower passport rank; currency risk on property valuation |
For investors considering the UAE alongside a European residency programme as a dual-jurisdiction structure, these golden visa programmes are not mutually exclusive. The UAE’s zero-presence maintenance requirement means it can run alongside a Portugal or Greece residency without conflicting physical presence obligations — the constraint to model is the EU citizenship presence requirement, not the UAE residency itself. For investors treating golden visa programmes as components of a broader wealth and mobility architecture, see the global mobility.
Investor Profiles — Who These Programmes Suit
Golden visa programmes are used across several distinct investor profiles. Understanding which category applies shapes both the programme selection and the structuring approach.
HNW Families Seeking Generational Security
Multi-generational families with eldercare obligations, adult dependent children or same-sex partners should evaluate Malta first — it is the only active programme that accommodates four generations within a single application. Portugal is the second option where same-sex partner inclusion is a requirement. For families where the primary objective is a stable EU base rather than immediate relocation, Portugal’s 5-year citizenship timeline with minimal presence obligations is often the better long-term fit.
Founders and Entrepreneurs Restructuring Their Tax Base
Investors seeking a genuine change of tax domicile — rather than just a second residency permit — need to model physical day-count requirements against actual business travel patterns. The UAE is the most commonly used vehicle for this purpose: zero residency maintenance requirement, fast approvals, and a mature banking and corporate infrastructure. The critical constraint is that UAE tax residency requires meeting the day-count threshold in practice, not just holding the permit.
Executives and Investors Managing Multi-Jurisdiction Presence
For investors who spend time across multiple jurisdictions and cannot commit to fixed travel patterns, zero-stay-requirement programmes are the practical options: UAE, Greece, Malta, Hungary, Latvia, Turkey and Caribbean programmes all impose no annual day-count for residency maintenance. Hungary stands out in this profile for European investors — fast approval, Schengen access, low government fees and no presence obligation.
Geopolitical Diversification and Second Passport Planning
Investors whose primary objective is a functional second passport — for emergency travel flexibility, visa-free access expansion, or reduced single-country exposure — have two structurally different options: Caribbean CBI for speed and cost efficiency (3–4 months, $235,000–$250,000 donation, no EU access), or a European residency-to-citizenship track for the stronger passport outcome at higher cost and a longer timeline. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive; Caribbean CBI can function as an immediate solution while a European citizenship track completes over 5–7 years.
Companion Resource
